- LISCOOLY, CO. DONEGAL, Donegal

Introduction
In late March 2004 a short cist containing an inhumation and a bowl was discovered during construction work on a farm at Liscooly, near Castlefinn, Co. Donegal. The cist, which lay at a depth of 0.8m below the present ground level, was disturbed by the bulldozer, which was in the process of levelling land to build a foundation for farm buildings. The contents of the cist

Fig. 3.41—Location map, Liscooly, Co. Donegal.

Fig. 3.42—Plan and section of grave 1, Liscooly, Co. Donegal.

were removed by the finders upon discovery. The site was reported by the landowner, Mr David Patterson, to the Gardaí at Castlefinn, who informed the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government and the NMI. The site was visited on 5 April by Linda Shine and Maeve Sikora. A few weeks later two further cists were discovered and these were investigated by Victor Buckley⁶² and Laureen Buckley. The report on graves 1 and 2 was written by Maeve Sikora and Linda Shine, while the report for graves 3 and 4 was written by Victor Buckley. The human remains were analysed by Laureen Buckley.

Fig. 3.43—Plan of graves 3 and 4, Liscooly, Co. Donegal.

Location (Fig. 3.41)
The site was in the townland of Liscooly, approximately 3km west of Castlefinn, east Co. Donegal.⁶³ The cist was in agricultural land in the grounds of Berwick Hall, Liscooly. The surrounding landscape is undulating and the cist lay at an altitude of 10–20m above sea level. The area is rich in archaeological sites, including a standing stone approximately 30m east of the site. Two early Bronze Age cist burials were excavated at Lisnamulligan, approximately 2.5km south-east of the Liscooly site (this volume, pp 153–8).

Description of site
Grave 1
The cist was rectangular in plan, with its long axis aligned north/south. The northern end stone of the cist, which had also been displaced by the machine, measured 0.74m wide by 0.52m high by 0.15m thick (Pl. 22). The remainder of the structure measured 1.17m long by 0.67m wide by 0.51m high internally (Fig. 3.42). Originally the cist was formed of five slabs. There was a single edge-set slab at the southern and northern ends and one on the western side, while the eastern side was formed of two slabs, one placed on top of the other. A number of small packing stones were visible in section outside the western side slab. The pit dug to receive the cist was not located. Although there was no evidence for a capstone in the area of the discovery, much of the earth around the cist had been moved and, according to the finder, it is possible that it was removed by the machine. The floor of the cist was paved with three slabs, one main slab measuring 0.83m long by 0.5m wide and two smaller slabs at the northern end. A number of smaller stones had been placed along the western side of the cist also.
The cist contained the skeleton of a young adult, probably male (04E0505:2), accompanied by a bipartite bowl. As the cist had been completely emptied by the time of investigation, it was not possible to determine the original position of the remains. According to Mr Patterson, the skull was found in the south-eastern corner of the cist with the bowl beside it. Only the larger

Fig. 3.44—Ceramic vessels, Liscooly, Co. Donegal.

bones appear to have been recovered. It is not clear whether more were originally present, but according to the finders all of the bones visible within the cist at the time of discovery were collected. A number of smaller bones were discovered in the disturbed soil around the outside of the cist.

Bipartite bowl, 04E0505:1 (Pl. 23; Fig. 3.44)
Complete bipartite bowl with everted rim. The vessel is decorated externally with impressed and incised decoration. The uppermost band of decoration around the neck consisted of a double row of chevrons executed in false relief. This is separated from the next band of decoration by two parallel, incised horizontal lines. Below this is the largest band of decoration (approx. 4cm wide), which consists of impressed slender lozenges infilled with incised vertical lines. This is separated from the next band of decoration by a single incised horizontal line. The next band of decoration straddles the constriction of the vessel at its centre and consists of an incised broad lozenge pattern, again bordered by a single incised horizontal line. The lozenges are decorated with incised lattice decoration. Below this is a repeat of the slender stamped lozenge decoration in the upper part of the bowl, bordered again by a single incised horizontal line. The lowermost band of decoration consists of incised chevron pattern, where the chevrons are decorated with an incised lattice pattern. The base of the bowl is not decorated.
Dimensions: H 10cm; ext. D rim 14.27cm; D base 7.55cm; T wall 0.9cm.

Grave 2 (possible cist)
Approximately 3m east of the cist, a large flat slab was also exposed. This was thought by Mr Patterson to be the remains of a second cist. The area around the slab was investigated, but it was clear that the stone was not in its original position, and may have been moved some distance by the digger. No remains were noted in the vicinity, although it is possible that some of the bone found in the loose soil around grave 1 (see report below) may have been from this cist. No pottery or other finds were noted that might confirm the presence of a cist at this location but it remains a possibility.

Grave 3⁶⁴
The cist was 2.2m east-south-east of grave 1. It was aligned west-north-west/east-south-east, was rectangular in plan and was formed of five slabs of micaceous sandstone. This was covered by a single capstone, which measured 1.3m long by 0.6m wide by 0.2–0.25m thick. The north-north-western side stone measured 0.62m long by 0.16m thick by 0.29m high; the opposite side stone (at the south-south-eastern side) measured 0.91m long by 0.25m wide by 0.3m high (Fig. 3.43). The end stone at the west-north-western end measured 0.36m long by 0.19m in maximum width by 0.3m high. The east-south-eastern end was formed of two interlocking slabs measuring 0.2m and 0.14m long, 0.17m and 0.24m wide respectively, and 0.3m high. Packing stones had been placed behind the south-south-eastern side stone. These ran the entire length of the side stone and measured approximately 0.25m wide. The side stones had been set on a single flat slab which formed the base of the cist. The width and thickness of this slab were not determined.

The cist contained the cremated remains of a single young adult (04E0505:4) accompanied by a simple bowl. The vessel had been placed in the west-north-western corner of the cist and the cremated bone had been placed in a conical mound immediately to the east-south-east of this. This portion of the cist was otherwise completely empty.

Simple bowl, 04E0505:3 (Fig. 3.44)
This is a very well-made complete simple bowl with an inverted rim. Internally, the rim is decorated with short slanting rows of comb impressions. A similar motif is used to decorate the external rim. The principal motifs on the body of the pot consist of two panels of opposing depressed triangles which produce a motif in false relief resembling a stretched hide. These are bordered by panels of slanting comb impressions, which are in turn bordered by single straight lines of comb impressions. The base is decorated with an approximately cruciform motif in false relief set in a circle formed by a single line. There are some slight comb impressions within the circular line and the depressed triangles that form the cross.
Dimensions: H 10cm; ext. D rim 12.7cm; int. D rim 12cm; D base 6.7cm.

Grave 4⁶⁵
This was 3.5m east of grave 1 and 2.5m north-north-west of grave 3. The capstone of the cist had fractured when opened by the bulldozer. The grave was trapezoidal in outline, and was aligned roughly on a north/south axis. It was formed of five slabs, two large side stones at the eastern and western sides, two end stones at the southern end and one at the north (Fig. 3.43).

The eastern side stone measured 0.7m long by 0.2–0.25m long by 0.36m high. The western side stone measured 0.94m long by 0.25m wide by 0.36m high. The southern end was formed of two stones, each measuring 0.25m long by approximately 0.18m wide by 0.36m high. The cist narrowed to the north, and at this end was a single slab, 0.32m long. The width and height were not determined by Buckley, but a single stone had been placed on top of this slab, presumably as a wedge between it and the capstone. This wedge stone ran the length of the north side of the cist and measured 0.05–0.15m thick. The cist was sealed with a large capstone, which originally measured 0.9m long by 0.92m wide by 0.2m thick. A single flat slab had been placed on the floor of the cist. The size of the slab was not determined, but according to Buckley extended underneath the side stones and appeared to be of the same mudstone as the eastern and western slabs.
The cist contained a crouched inhumation of an adolescent male (04E0505:6) accompanied by a bipartite bowl. The skeleton had been placed on its right side with the arms flexed. The vessel had been placed in the area of the pelvis between the elbows and the top of the humerus.

Bipartitebowl, 04E0505:5 (Fig. 3.44)
This vessel is a slightly constricted or bipartite bowl. It has a rounded, very slightly inverted rim. The vessel is complete except for a small area of loss on the rim and upper body. It is decorated immediately below the rim by a single impressed plain line. Below this is a panel of short slanted strokes that form a herringbone pattern. This is followed by three impressed plain lines. Three rows of small semi-lunate impressions are separated by deeply scored longitudinal strokes. A further two rows of semi-lunate impressions and a row of herringbone complete the decorative scheme. The base is undecorated.
Dimensions: H 8.8cm; ext. D rim 12cm; int. D rim 11.3cm; D base 7.5cm.

Comment
Three certain cists and one possible cist were discovered at this site. The circumstances of discovery meant that the site was badly disturbed and it was not possible to establish a clear link in archaeological terms between the burials. Nevertheless, the probability is that part of a linear cemetery was disturbed during the construction work on the site. There was no evidence for a mound or cairn but this might have been removed previously.
The pottery from this site is of exceptional quality in terms of production and design. A sample of bone from grave 1 was submitted for radiocarbon analysis and yielded a date of 3755±40 BP, which calibrates to 2290–2030 BC.⁶⁶ This cist contained a bipartite bowl.

HUMAN REMAINS
LAUREEN BUCKLEY

Grave 1 (04E0505:2)
This cist was only discovered after it had been disturbed by machine and the bones and vessel were noticed by the farmer. Owing to the possibility of further damage by exposure to the elements, the bones and vessel were recovered by the farmer and kept indoors until Museum staff could collect them. Therefore the position of the burial and relative position of the vessel could not be determined. Since it was a short cist, it is presumed that the burial was crouched.

Description of skeleton
The skeleton consisted mainly of the skull and long bones, with very few of the smaller bones such as ribs and vertebrae and bones of the hands and feet. The bone was very decayed on the outer surface with the surface flaking off, and in some bones the outer cortex was almost completely decayed. The skull consisted mainly of the right side of the calvarium, in one piece. The right side of the frontal bone was complete, and part of the nasal bone was present; the orbital part of the maxilla and most of the orbital part of the right zygomatic bone were also present, so that the right orbit was in fact almost complete. The left side of the frontal bone was almost complete although most of the left orbit was missing. The right parietal was complete and the medial half of the left parietal bone was also present. The right greater wing of sphenoid was present, the temporal bone was present but decayed and the mastoid area was missing. Most of the right side of the squamous occipital bone was present but it was encrusted in mineral deposits. Also present were a few loose teeth.
There were no vertebrae remaining and only two small rib fragments. The medial twothirds of the right clavicle was present but the right humerus was the only other arm bone present. The proximal end and shaft of the humerus were in good condition but the distal joint surface was destroyed. Two further fragments of a long bone were present and, although the bone could not be positively identified since it was very decayed, it was probably part of an ulna shaft. The virtually complete right third metacarpal and one distal hand phalanx remained from the hand bones. Only one piece of the left side remained from the pelvis. This consisted of part of the left ilium from around the sciatic notch with the anterior inferior iliac crest, the superior part of the acetabulum and the superior ramus of the pubic bone present. The left femur was virtually complete with just the greater trochanter missing, although the distal joint surface was very decayed. The right femur was almost complete although it was broken in the proximal third and the medial condyle was missing. The proximal two-thirds of the left tibia was present and the right tibia was virtually complete but it was fragmented at both joint ends. A few fragments of calcaneum, a left third cuneiform, right first metatarsal and the head of one other metatarsal were all that remained from the foot bones.

Sex and age
The sciatic notch was narrow, indicative of a male. The diameter of the heads of the humerus and femur were larger than the maximum female diameters but smaller than the minimum male diameters. The size and general robustness of the bones is more likely to indicate a male than a female. The supraorbital ridges were slightly prominent, also more indicative of a male than a female. This skeleton is therefore considered to be probably but not definitely male. The epiphysis at the sternal end of the clavicle was only half-fused and this indicates that the individual was a young adult less than 22 years of age (Scheuer and Black 2000, 251).

Stature
Using the regression equations of Trotter and Gleser (1952; 1958)and the length of the femur the stature was estimated at 171cm.

Non-metric traits
The metopic suture of the frontal bone was retained. This suture usually fuses in the first year of life but is occasionally retained into adulthood.

Dentition
Loose teeth present included the upper two central incisors, the upper right canine, the upper left first molar, the upper left second molar and the mandibular right second molar. There was very little wear on any of the teeth, although the central incisors had more wear than any other tooth. The teeth were slightly obscured by mineral deposits but there seemed to be only slight calculus deposits on the buccal surface of the canine and the buccal and lingual surfaces of the upper molars.
The canine had some lines of hypoplasia, indicating nutritional deficiency or acute infections during early childhood.

Summary of grave 1
This cist contained the remains of a young adult, probably male, individual with an estimated living stature of 171cm. The outer surface of the bones was very decayed and no skeletal pathology was noted, although he had retained his metopic suture into adulthood. A few loose teeth were found with the skull and these were also consistent with a young individual, one who had suffered from nutritional deficiency or acute illness during early childhood.

Grave 2 (04E0505:7)
Although grave 2 was empty when visited, and had only been noticed by the farmer after grave 1 had been found, the bones gathered up as belonging to grave 1 contained an extra femur, which presumably is all that is left of the burial from grave 2. Grave 2, however, remains an uncertain feature.
The bone was a right femur. The proximal end was present but slightly damaged, and the shaft was virtually complete although the distal end was missing. The epiphyseal line at the head of the femur was still visible. The bone was very black in colour, indicating that it had probably been lying in waterlogged conditions for some time. The robustness of the bone suggests that it may have been from a male individual.

Grave 3, cremation (04E0505:4)
This cist contained a bowl and a quantity of cremated bone heaped on the slab that made up the floor of the cist. There was evidence of some dead root material over the bowl and cremation. The bowl was removed and the cremated remains were then retrieved as quickly as possible without further fragmenting the bone. As the bone was clean and had not been contaminated by soil, it was only necessary to brush the larger fragments before examination.

Description of cremation
The bone was mainly white in colour although some fragments from the posterior surface of the femur were partially blue, indicating incomplete cremation. Some fragments were stained brown, presumably owing to minerals leaching from the surrounding cairn. The bone was warped and there were numerous horizontal fissures. A total of 4,165 fragments of bone were collected, weighing 1,507g. The weight of a full adult cremation can vary from 1,600g to 3,600g (McKinley 1989). The size and fragmentation of the bone are presented in Table 3.19, with the largest fragment being 108mm in length.

Table 3.19—Fragmentation of bone, grave 3.

It can be seen from Table 3.19 that although there were no very small fragments less than 5mm in length, there was a relatively low proportion of larger fragments more than 40mm in length. Over half the fragments are of moderate size, 10–25mm, suggesting that although the bone was not deliberately crushed, there was little attempt to keep the bones intact when they were being collected from the pyre and being deposited in the cist. Even though the bones were moderately fragmented it was still possible to identify 703g (47%) of the sample. This is similar to what would be expected from a Bronze Age cremation of this nature.
The quantities of the various bones identified are listed in Table 3.20, and Table 3.21 shows the percentages of body parts.

Table 3.20—Proportion of identified bone, grave 3.

Table 3.21—Percentage of various body parts, grave 3.

In this skeleton the proportion of skull recovered was 23%, which is slightly higher than expected but not enough to suggest that more than one individual was present. The skull is the most easily identifiable bone and if more than one individual is present the proportion of recovered skull can be considerably higher than expected. The proportion of axial skeleton at 19.5% was slightly lower than normally expected but the decrease was only 3.6%, which is not highly significant. Since the proportion of skull was more than expected, this has the effect of slightly decreasing the proportions of the other skeletal elements. In addition, the vertebrae are very fragile, especially when burnt, and are not always fully recovered from the pyre.
The proportion of upper limb was higher than expected and this seems to be at the expense of the lower limbs, as their proportion was much lower than would normally be expected from an adult cremation. The long bones of the legs are relatively easy to identify
148 Breaking ground, finding graves
149Early Bronze Age graves
and therefore the results in this case may indicate that they were not collected efficiently from the funeral pyre. It is possible that the upper half of the skeleton was collected preferentially over the lower half.

Description of skeletal elements
Skull: several fragments of the parietal bones were present. Most of the squamous frontal bone was present but was split through the diploe, and one orbital rim remained. Both temporal bones were present and included the left and right petrous portions and the right temporal fossa and zygomatic area. A greater wing of sphenoid was present and part of the right zygomatic bone also survived. A large section of the right side of the mandible and two mandibular condyles were present. Part of the maxilla and eleven fragments of teeth survived.
Dentition: sockets for the following teeth were observed:

Teeth present included an upper molar with the crown shattered, one lower molar and three other molar roots. Six other roots were present, probably from anterior teeth.

Vertebrae: the dens articulation area on the first cervical vertebra was present and the dens of the second cervical vertebra also survived. Fragments from four lower cervical vertebrae, including the vertebral bodies and articular surfaces, were also present. Fragments of six thoracic vertebrae were present, including some fragmented arches with the posterior articular surfaces and some of the costal surfaces, but there were no vertebral bodies remaining. The posterior arches of at least four lumbar vertebrae remained.

Ribs: several fragments of shaft, including some from near the neck area, remained. There were at least eight ribs from the left side and five from the right side present. The epiphyses at the head of the ribs were just fused.
Pelvis: the pelvis was very fragmented but there were small fragments of ilium, including fragments of acetabula and the auricular surfaces. Parts of a left and of a right ischium were also present. The first sacral vertebra was virtually complete, with the vertebral body and both alae present. The second sacral vertebra was also present.
Clavicle: the lateral end of a clavicle was present, and part of a sternal end with sternal epiphysis unfused also remained.
Scapula: part of the body of a right scapula, including the lateral border and part of the glenoid fossa, was present.
Humerus: the proximal halves of two humerus shafts as well as two proximal joint surfaces were present, and a left and a right distal joint surface were almost complete.
Radius: there were large fragments from the mid-shaft area and smaller fragments from the proximal end of the shaft. Two distal thirds with the distal joint surfaces were present, and there were also two proximal joint surfaces.
Ulnae: the fragments were mainly from the proximal and distal halves of the shafts, and there were two distal joint ends and two fragments of proximal joint surface.
Carpals/metacarpals/phalanges: several carpal bones were present, including an almost complete right scaphoid and a partial left scaphoid, the right and left lunate, the right pisiform and the left hamate. There was also a first and second metacarpal and fragments of eight other metacarpals. There were nine proximal, six middle and nine distal hand phalanges.
Femur: the fragments were mostly all fragments of shaft, including fragments from the proximal and distal ends. Part of a distal joint surface was also present. The shaft fragments were thick, from an adult bone.
Tibia: several large fragments of shaft were present, including one fragment from the proximal posterior surface with the nutrient foramen present. There was also a fragment from the distal third of a tibia with most of the distal joint surface visible. Another distal joint surface and part of a proximal joint surface were also present.
Fibula: the fragments were all fragments of shaft.
Patella: only one fragment of patella remained.
Tarsals/metatarsals/phalanges: fragments of two tali, one calcaneum, a cuboid and two cuneiforms all survived from the tarsal bones. A left and right first metatarsal, a left fifth metatarsal and four other metatarsals were present, and there were four proximal, one middle and one distal foot phalanges.

Number of individuals
As all the skeletal elements recovered occurred either singly or in pairs such as normally present in one individual, it can be certain that only one individual is represented here. The amount of bone recovered is also consistent with one adult individual. It was not possible to determine the sex of the individual, as the pelvis was very fragmented and incomplete. The fact that the heads of the ribs were just fused but the sternal end of the clavicle was unfused suggests, however, that this was a young adult, probably aged 20–25 years but certainly less than 30 years at the time of death (Scheuer and Black 2000).

Summary and conclusions
The cremated bone from this cist represents the remains of a young adult. Cremation had been efficiently carried out and the remains carefully collected from the funeral pyre, as all skeletal elements were present. There was slightly less bone than expected from the lower half of the skeleton, however, and this may represent preferential collection of the skull and upper half of the skeleton. A certain amount of fragmentation had occurred during collection and deposition and the fragments were of moderate size; this may have reduced the proportion of bone that was identified, compared to other cremations where large fragments of bone were found.

Grave 4, inhumation (04E0505:6)
This burial lay in a trapezoidal short cist with covering capstone aligned north-east/southwest, with the short end of the cist to the north-east. The skeleton was lying on its right side in a crouched position and a bowl had been placed in the elbow area. Gravel had penetrated and filled the cist over time, and this was disturbed to reveal the bones and the bowl when the farmer opened the cist. As a result, the skeleton was partially damaged and disturbed, with most of the ribs and vertebrae missing and the small bones of the hands and feet out of their correct position. Only the skull, the arm and the leg bones were left in situ. The bones were very decayed on the outer surface although most of the long bones were intact.

Description of skeleton
The right side of the skull was virtually intact, with the frontal, maxilla, right parietal, right wing of sphenoid, right temporal and right side of the occipital bone complete and in one piece. The left side was fragmented and only small fragments of the left frontal, parietal and occipital bone were present. The petrous part of the left temporal bone was present but incomplete. Part of the left maxilla was also present and there was also the complete right side with part of the left side of the mandible. All the cervical vertebrae were present, with the first, second, fourth and fifth being complete but parts of the arches missing from the other three. Only the body of the first thoracic vertebra survived, and the anterior parts of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae were also present. There were six ribs, including the first ribs from each side.
The left clavicle was complete but the lateral end was missing from the right clavicle. Only the right scapula survived and was intact; the left scapula was missing. Both humeri were complete. The radii and ulnae were virtually complete but the left radius was fragmented at the proximal end of the shaft, where the bowl had been resting on it. The right ulna was also fragmented at the proximal end, and the distal ends were missing from both radii. The left capitate, three metacarpal shafts and two proximal phalanges remained from the hand bones but it was not possible to determine which side the metacarpals were from.
Part of the left ilium from around the sciatic notch and with part of the acetabulum was present. The right ilium consisted of the anterior part of the iliac fossa. Both pubic bones were present, with the right pubic bone virtually complete.
The left femur was almost complete but the neck and proximal metaphysis were decayed. The right femur, both tibiae and the left fibula were complete. Most of the shaft remained from the right fibula. The talus and calcaneum were present from each foot, and the navicular and third cuneiform were also present from the right foot. The first and fifth left metatarsals remained, as well as the right third, fourth and fifth metatarsals. There were no foot phalanges.

Epiphyseal fusion
All the epiphyses at the ends of the long bones, the trochanters of the femurs, the base of the phalanges and all the epiphyses in the scapula were unfused. The arches were fused to the centra of the vertebrae but the acetabulum of the pelvis was unfused. From the epiphyseal fusion the age of the juvenile was estimated to be 7–12 years.

Sex
Although it can be difficult to sex juveniles, the shape of the pubic bones suggests that this was a male individual.
[insert EBS-020-6.jpg here]
The crowns of the third molars were not completely formed. The roots of the second molars were half-formed and the roots of the premolars were three-quarters-formed. An individual at this stage of dental development would be aged 11–13 years (Schour and Massler 1941). There were slight calculus deposits on the lingual surfaces of the lower first and second molars.

Summary and conclusions
This skeleton was the crouched inhumation of a juvenile, probably male, of around twelve years of age (11–13 years). It lay in a short cist, typical of Bronze Age burials, and was accompanied by a bowl that had been placed over the elbows. The long bones were in a reasonable state of preservation but most of the vertebrae and ribs had either decayed or been lost. Most of the right side of the skull was intact but the exposed left side was very decayed and had fragmented. There was no observable pathology present on the skeleton, and slight calculus deposits were all that was present on the teeth.

Table 3.22—Bone measurements, graves 2 and 4.

Summary of the cist graves from Liscooly
Four short cists were discovered at this site. The first cist had been disturbed, so the position of the burial was not noted, but it contained a young, probably male individual who had suffered from some nutritional deficiency and acute illness during early childhood. He had an estimated stature of 171cm.
The second (possible) grave had been destroyed before discovery. Only one bone that may have been from this grave was recovered, and it indicated that the grave may have contained a young adult male.
The third cist contained a vessel and cremated remains, which were not deliberately crushed but consisted mainly of moderate-sized fragments. All parts of the skeleton were represented, although the upper half of the skeleton seems to have been collected from the pyre in preference to the lower half. There was no repetition of skeletal elements, so only one individual was present; this was a young adult, although the sex could not be determined.
The fourth cist contained an adolescent male aged 11–13 years. This was the most intact skeleton, although little remained of the vertebral column.

62. National Monuments Service, Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government.
63. Parish of Donaghmore, barony of Raphoe South. SMR DG079-044001- to –044004-. IGR 222900 394600.
64. There is no plan or section available for this cist.
65. There is no plan or section available for this cist.
66. GrA-29067.